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About & Sources

How this resource is compiled, what it is not, and where to find primary literature.

Methodology

Content is drawn from peer-reviewed publications, preprints, and the 2026 systematic review on COVID-19 vaccine artifact persistence (BMC Infectious Diseases, DOI 10.1186/s43094-026-00939-2). Tables 2 and 3 from that review inform the fluids and tissues sections. Each claim is tagged with an evidence level (Low / Medium / High) and linked to primary sources. Conflicting findings are presented without editorial favor.

What this site is not

  • Not a substitute for medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment
  • Not a systematic review or meta-analysis in itself
  • Not an advocacy site for or against vaccination
  • Not a repository of patient-identifiable data

Full references

  1. Swank DL, et al. Persistent circulating SARS-CoV-2 spike protein in individuals post-COVID-19 vaccination. Circulation (2023). https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.122.061025
  2. Fehrer C, et al. Vaccine-derived spike protein and mRNA persist for up to 6 months in blood and tissues of patients with post-acute sequelae following COVID-19 vaccination. medRxiv (preprint) (2024). https://doi.org/10.1101/2024.11.11.24317084
  3. Yonker LM, et al. Circulating spike protein detected in post–COVID-19 mRNA vaccine myocarditis. Circulation (2023). https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.122.061730
  4. Selem E, Raszek M, Varon J, Halma MTJ The persistence of COVID-19 vaccine artifacts in bodily fluids and tissues: a systematic review. Future Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences (2026). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43094-026-00939-2
  5. Tanikawa T, et al. Degradative Effect of Nattokinase on Spike Protein of SARS-CoV-2. Molecules (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27238405
  6. Röltgen K, et al. Immune imprinting, breadth of variant recognition, and germinal center response in human SARS-CoV-2 infection and vaccination. Cell (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2022.01.018
  7. Bansal S, et al. Cutting Edge: Circulating Exosomes with COVID Spike Protein Are Immunogenic and Potentially Contribute to the Immune Response in COVID-19. Journal of Immunology (2022). https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.2100638
  8. ClinicalTrials.gov SPEAR Trial — spike protein apheresis research. Clinical trial registry (2024).
  9. NIH RECOVER Initiative RECOVER — Researching COVID to Enhance Recovery. NIH program (2024).
  10. Halma MTJ, et al. The Possible Mechanistic Basis of Individual Susceptibility to Spike Protein Injury. Advances in Virology (2025). https://doi.org/10.1155/av/7990876
  11. Halma MTJ, Marik PE, Saleeby YM Exploring autophagy in treating SARS-CoV-2 spike protein-related pathology. Endocrine and Metabolic Science (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.endmts.2024.100163
  12. Achleitner M, et al. Clinical improvement of long-COVID is associated with reduction in autoantibodies, lipids, and inflammation following therapeutic apheresis. Molecular Psychiatry (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-023-02084-1
  13. Grobbelaar LM, Venter C, Pretorius E SARS-CoV-2 spike protein S1 induces fibrin(ogen) resistant to fibrinolysis. Bioscience Reports (2021). https://doi.org/10.1042/BSR20210611
  14. Avolio E, et al. The SARS-CoV-2 spike protein disrupts human cardiac pericytes function through CD147 receptor-mediated signalling. Clinical Science (2021). https://doi.org/10.1042/CS20210735
  15. Various In vitro exposure to the SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein subunit S1 leads to changes in several functional characteristics of human trophoblast cells. Placenta (2026). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.placenta.2026.01.015
  16. Various The recombinant spike S1 protein induces injury and inflammation in co-cultures of human alveolar epithelial cells and macrophages. PLoS ONE (2025). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0318881
  17. Various The spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 induces inflammation and EMT of lung epithelial cells and fibroblasts through the upregulation of GADD45A. Open Medicine (Warsaw) (2023). https://doi.org/10.1515/med-2023-0779
  18. Various Effects of Recombinant SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein Variants on Platelet Morphology and Activation. Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis (2024). https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0043-1769939
  19. Various Variant-derived SARS-CoV-2 spike protein does not directly cause platelet activation or hypercoagulability. Clinical and Experimental Medicine (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10238-023-01091-4
  20. Various Inhibition of SARS-CoV-2-Induced NLRP3 Inflammasome-Mediated Lung Cell Inflammation by Triphala-Loaded Nanoparticle Targeting Spike Glycoprotein S1. Pharmaceutics (2024). https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics16060751
  21. Various Distinct Effects of Respiratory Viral Infection Models on miR-149-5p, IL-6 and p63 Expression in BEAS-2B and A549 Epithelial Cells. Cells (2024). https://doi.org/10.3390/cells13110919
  22. Various Alveolar epithelial type 2 cell specific loss of IGFBP2 activates inflammation in COVID-19. Respiratory Research (2025). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12931-025-03187-9
  23. Various Luteolin-Rich Extract from Harrisonia perforata (Blanco) Merr. Root Alleviates SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein-Stimulated Lung Inflammation via Inhibition of MAPK/NLRP3 Inflammasome Signaling Pathways. Life (Basel) (2025). https://doi.org/10.3390/life15071077
  24. Various Luteolin-rich fraction from Perilla frutescens seed meal inhibits spike glycoprotein S1 of SARS-CoV-2-induced NLRP3 inflammasome lung cell inflammation via regulation of JAK1/STAT3 pathway. Frontiers in Medicine (2022). https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2022.1072056
  25. Various Hesperetin from Root Extract of Clerodendrum petasites S. Moore Inhibits SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein S1 Subunit-Induced NLRP3 Inflammasome in A549 Lung Cells via Modulation of the Akt/MAPK/AP-1 Pathway. International Journal of Molecular Sciences (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms231810346
  26. Various The SARS-CoV-2 Virus and the Cholinergic System: Spike Protein Interaction with Human Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors and the Nicotinic Agonist Varenicline. International Journal of Molecular Sciences (2023). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24065597
  27. Theoharides TC, Conti P Be Aware of SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein: There is More Than Meets the Eye. Journal of Biological Regulators & Homeostatic Agents (2021). https://doi.org/10.23812/THEO_EDIT_3_21
  28. Wang K, et al. CD147-spike protein is a novel route for SARS-CoV-2 infection to host cells. Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy (2020).
  29. Shirato K, Kizaki T SARS-CoV-2 spike protein S1 subunit induces pro-inflammatory responses via toll-like receptor 4 signaling in murine and human macrophages. Heliyon (2021).
  30. Solis O, et al. The SARS-CoV-2 spike protein binds and modulates estrogen receptors. Science Advances (2022). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.add4150
  31. Singh N, Bharara Singh A S2 subunit of SARS-nCoV-2 interacts with tumor suppressor protein p53 and BRCA: an in silico study. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases (2020).
  32. Various Transfected SARS-CoV-2 spike DNA for mammalian cell expression inhibits p53 activation of p21(WAF1), TRAIL Death Receptor DR5 and MDM2 proteins in cancer cells and increases cancer cell viability after chemotherapy exposure. Oncotarget (2024).
  33. Tetz G, Tetz V Prion-like Domains in Spike Protein of SARS-CoV-2 Differ across Its Variants and Enable Changes in Affinity to ACE2. Microorganisms (2022).
  34. Tillman TS, Chen Q, Bondarenko V, Coleman JA, Xu Y, Tang P SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein Downregulates Cell Surface α7nAChR through a Helical Motif in the Spike Neck. ACS Chemical Neuroscience (2023). https://doi.org/10.1021/acschemneuro.2c00610
  35. Rhea EM, et al. The S1 protein of SARS-CoV-2 crosses the blood–brain barrier in mice. Nature Neuroscience (2021).
  36. Vojdani A, Vojdani E, Kharrazian D Reaction of Human Monoclonal Antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 Proteins With Tissue Antigens: Implications for Autoimmune Diseases. Frontiers in Immunology (2021).
  37. Various Mitochondrial Reactive Oxygen Species: A Unifying Mechanism in Long COVID and Spike Protein-Associated Injury. Narrative Review (2025).
  38. Greinacher A, et al. Thrombotic Thrombocytopenia after ChAdOx1 nCov-19 Vaccination. New England Journal of Medicine (2021). https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2104840
  39. Perico L, et al. SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein 1 Activates Microvascular Endothelial Cells and Complement System Leading to Platelet Aggregation. Frontiers in Immunology (2022).
  40. Zuo Y, et al. Neutrophil extracellular traps in COVID-19. JCI Insight (2020). https://doi.org/10.1172/jci.insight.138999
  41. Hoffmann M, et al. SARS-CoV-2 Cell Entry Depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and Is Blocked by a Clinically Proven Protease Inhibitor. Cell (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2020.02.052
  42. Various The spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 induces endothelial inflammation through integrin α5β1 and NF-κB signaling. Journal of Biological Chemistry (2022).
  43. Daly JL, et al. Neuropilin-1 is a host factor for SARS-CoV-2 infection. Science (2020). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abd3072
  44. Various Role of Gut Microbiota in Long COVID: Impact on Immune Function and Organ System Health. Review (2024).
  45. Various Serum Spike Protein Persistence Post COVID Is Not Associated with ME/CFS. Journal / preprint (2025).
  46. Various SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein and Long COVID—Part 1: Impact of Spike Protein in Pathophysiological Mechanisms of Long COVID Syndrome. Viruses (2025). https://doi.org/10.3390/v17050617
  47. Various Biomarker-Based Risk Assessment Strategy for Long COVID: Leveraging Spike Protein and Proinflammatory Mediators to Inform Broader Postinfection Sequelae. Review (2025).
  48. Various Biological factors associated with long COVID and comparative analysis of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein variants: a retrospective study in Thailand. Retrospective study (2024).
  49. Various Ivermectin Docks to the SARS-CoV-2 Spike Receptor-binding Domain Attached to ACE2. In Vivo (2020).
  50. Various Molecular docking analysis reveals the functional inhibitory effect of Genistein and Quercetin on TMPRSS2: SARS-COV-2 cell entry facilitator spike protein. BMC Bioinformatics (2022).
  51. Various The function of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein is impaired by disulfide-bond disruption with mutation at cysteine-488 and by thiol-reactive N-acetyl-cysteine and glutathione. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications (2022).
  52. Various Targeting SARS-CoV-2 spike protein of COVID-19 with naturally occurring phytochemicals: an in silico study for drug development. In silico study (2020).
  53. Sagar S, et al. Bromelain inhibits SARS-CoV-2 infection via targeting ACE-2, TMPRSS2, and spike protein. Clinical and Translational Medicine (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/ctm2.281
  54. Various Effects of Exogenous SARS-CoV-2 S1 Protein and mRNA Vaccines on Mixed Neuronal–Glial Cell Cultures. Medicina (Kaunas) (2026).
  55. Cao X, et al. Inhibition of CXCL10 and IFN-γ ameliorates myocarditis in preclinical models of SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccination. Science Translational Medicine (2025).
  56. Chang CC, et al. NRICM101 in combatting COVID-19 induced brain fog: Neuroprotective effects and neurovascular integrity preservation in hACE2 mice. Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine (2024).

Update log

  • Resource Hub expansion: literature database (252 papers), PubMed ingestion pipeline, SEO pillar guides, FAQ schema, sitemap, CSV export.
  • Initial site launch with four content sections, persistence tables, charts, and search.

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